Sourdough starter, which we refer to as levain, is made by mixing flour and water, then leaving the mixture to sit, uncovered, at room temperature until the microscopic yeast cells and lactic acid bacteria (LAB) that are present in the flour begin feeding. Within days, you will see signs of fermentation. (You can also start a levain using a premade commercial culture if you want things to move along a little quicker; see page 48 of Modernist Bread at Homefor our recommendations.)
In this blog, we’ll cover how to start a levain, what that process looks like, some things to be aware of, and some options for kick-starting your levain.
THE PROCESS
First, the flour and water mixture goes through an inoculation period, which is when the culture initially takes root and becomes active. This takes 4–5 days for a basic levain and requires regular maintenance by the baker. Yeast and LAB are voracious microbes and will exhaust the food stores in the original flour-and-water mixture if they are not replenished; for your colony to survive and thrive, you need to feed it. To do this, a portion of the levain is removed (and typically discarded, although you can save it for Second Chance Sourdough) and replaced with an equal amount of water and flour (a fresh store of food). The levain is fed on a regular schedule until fermentation has progressed to the point that the levain has sufficient leavening power and has produced enough lactic acid to achieve the degree of acidity that you prefer in your sourdough. At that point, a portion of the levain can be added to your bread dough.
Then you have two options: the first is to continue feeding and using the levain. You can keep that same levain going for months, years, or even decades, so long as you feed it every day at the same time. The other is to freeze the unused levain to use later. We’ll discuss feeding and storing in greater detail in the next lessons.
People often ask us if the pedigree of a sourdough starter is important. Our answer is that a long-lived levain will almost certainly change in composition over time. Think of it like a city; a great city may be just as grand two centuries from now as it is today, but it will have different inhabitants—some descended from the original residents and others who arrived later.
Overall, the pedigree of your levain isn’t crucial. As long as the levain is fed on the same schedule and kept at about the same temperature and level of hydration, it will ripen and mature as expected.
SOME THINGS TO KNOW
The environment of a levain is known as a SCOBY (symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast). Other fermented foods that rely on a type of SCOBY include kombucha and kefir.
Before you use your levain’s storage tub or glass jar, wash it out with a mild soap (we suggest hand soap). Do not use sanitizing solutions; they could adversely affect the yeast and LAB.
Practically all flours can be used to make a levain. Rye flours have many nutrients that favor yeast development. A new levain made with rye flour will usually be ready to be mixed into dough a few days before a white flour levain is.
We do not recommend using high-gluten flours to start a levain.
While many bakers swear by using inoculants, such as raisin water, to jump-start their levain, we found that approach was both unnecessary and ineffective. However, we did find some kick-starters that worked: chickpea flour and rye flour. You can learn more about this in Modernist Breadvol. 3:47, 57.
Once you’ve started your levain, feed it once a day in cool months/environments and twice a day in hot months/environments.
We recommend storing your levain at 21–24 °C / 70–75 °F.
If you feed the levain regularly, it will develop more and more lactic and acetic acid flavors over time, which you’ll start to taste in your bread. The souring process levels off after about 10 days.
The average inoculation time for a fresh starter made from flour and water is 4–5 days.
Eager to start your own? Take a look at our recipe for liquid sourdough starter/levain.
Without consistent feeding, sourdough starters get tired pretty quickly. We were surprised at how disappointing a sourdough bread made with even a 3-day-old starter (which we refer to as levain) turned out. There was uneven leavening, and while the loaf looked fine on the outside, the inside revealed a tight crumb with a handful of giant air pockets. These aren’t the desirable airy, voluminous holes typical of a ciabatta. Far from it. That’s why we recommend consistent daily feedings to get the most out of your levain.
However, we also understand how this is not always possible, which is why short-term levain storage is still necessary.
Short-Term Levain Storage (without Feeding)
Life happens, and being chained to a levain is no way to live. This 2- to 3-day storage method is a short-term solution that will preserve the levain for more than a day and not hinder its leavening power. You may choose to do this if, for example, you’re going away for a long weekend trip, or you own a bakery that’s closed on Monday and Tuesday each week. There are many reasons to step away from a levain for a couple of days. Use the following options to keep your levain alive: add more salt to slow down yeast activity, reduce the water content, or refrigerate it (learn more about these techniques in Modernist Bread vol. 3:61). We also detail how to bring your levain back to normal—that is, back to a schedule of waxing and waning.
USING REFRIGERATION
Refrigerate the levain. The yeast won’t be happy at the standard temperature setting below 4.5 °C / 40 °F, but it won’t die. (Wine refrigerators allow for a warmer range.)
After 48–72 hours, transfer the levain to a room at 21 °C / 70 °F, allowing the levain to temper and wake up.
Wait at least 12 hours, then feed it.
Wait another 12 hours and feed it again. By the following day, your levain should be back to normal.
What To Do with Extra Levain
Even with careful planning and levain maintenance, extra levain is typical. Unused portions of levain, such as those removed for a feeding, are often just thrown out. Sometimes a levain is forgotten or ignored for too long and the entire batch loses its leavening power and becomes useless. Over time, the amount of discarded levain can add up.
We’ve developed several techniques to deal with leftover levain, even when it’s inactive.
Unused, freshly fed levain can be frozen in single servings and thawed before mixing. You can thaw and use it regularly for up to two weeks. After that, it will lose its leavening power. Learn how we do this in our blog Five Easy Tips for Freezing Your Sourdough Starter.
We’ve also developed our Second Chance Sourdough method for levain that has been in the freezer for more than 2 weeks. This method allows you to make a big batch of levain and freeze it in portions for use throughout the year. For the first 2 weeks, thaw and use the portions as you would a regular levain. As storage time goes on, and the thawed levains are visibly less active, simply add 0.5% commercial yeast to boost leavening power.
You’ll be able to make richly flavored sourdough loaves without the hassle and waste that goes along with daily maintenance. You can think of these methods as ways to minimize waste—or as a rather spectacular form of instant sourdough flavoring.
Other Things to Do with Leftover Levain
What about all that starter discard? There are many uses for the portion that might otherwise end up in the compost.
Make dough, and then freeze it. This offers a convenient way to bake bread whenever you need it. However, the dough may be sluggish and could take longer to ferment, meaning it will have a reduced volume.
Try making crackers.
Make pancakes from your sourdough starter, which can avoid food waste and makes extra-flavorful pancakes. It can also result in a tougher pancake texture, though.
Use inactive levain as a flavoring agent with our Second Chance Levain recipe.
Consistency is key when managing a levain to ensure optimal performance in your sourdough baking. As we’ve explored, even a few days of neglect can alter your levain’s leavening ability, resulting in disappointing loaves with uneven textures and lackluster flavors. That’s why regular feeding schedules are recommended to maintain the vitality of your starter. However, we understand that life’s demands can sometimes interrupt these routines. Our lesson on short-term levain storage offers practical solutions to preserve your levain’s health and revive it if it’s been dormant. By following these methods, you can minimize waste and continue to enjoy delicious sourdough bread.
Making homemade bread or pizza dough might seem like a daunting task for busy bakers during the workweek, but a few smart strategies can save you time without sacrificing quality. Whether you’re tackling a loaf or prepping for pizza night, here are some practical tips to speed up your bread-making process.
Weigh your ingredients. Using a tared scale is faster and more accurate than filling up measuring cups repeatedly.
Choose a direct dough recipe. Skip the preferment to save time—most direct dough recipes take 4–6 hours, and they don’t compromise on flavor. Our Direct Farmer’s Bread or Direct Focaccia are great alternatives because they skip this preferment step. For pizza, we recommend any of our emergency recipes found in Modernist Pizza, which take 2–3 hours to make from start to finish.
Use warm water. Stick to 24–26°C (75–78°F) water to speed up fermentation without harming the yeast.
For bread, try making pan loaves and boules; they are faster to shape than other shapes. You can decide to divide the dough, shape it, and then put it directly in a baking pan. Most of our recipes will work well as pan loaves.
For pizza dough, use a dough relaxer. Doughs that have such little time to relax after being mixed, divided, and proofed will be difficult to stretch properly. You can also add 0.8–1% instant dry yeast to your recipe and you will have a dough that is ready in 2–3 hours.
Skip folds by mixing fully in a stand mixer. Or opt for rye bread, which doesn’t require full gluten development—just mix it into a smooth paste.
Bulk ferment in a warm place. A cozy spot will accelerate fermentation.
Streamline shaping. Pan loaves and boules are faster to shape, in the case of bread. For even more time saving, skip preshaping and rest by placing the dough directly into pans.
Proof warmly. Like bulk fermentation, a warm proofing environment speeds things along.
Skip scoring. If you proof seam side up, you can bake without scoring the dough.
There aren’t any practical shortcuts for baking or cooling your dough. You want to make sure that the bread has enough time for the crumb structure to fully set and to form the proper crust (although we won’t blame you for tearing into a loaf of warm bread fresh from the oven).
With practice, these tips will help you save time and make homemade bread and pizza an achievable treat, no matter your schedule.
As we delve deeper into pastry experiments for our next book, we thought it was time to introduce you to an integral member of our team. Meet Lesley Pettigrew, our Pastry Manager, who joined us last spring.
As we continue our work on the pastry project, Lesley will be overseeing our culinary team. Her role as Pastry Manager is instrumental in bringing Nathan’s vision for pastry experiments to life—guiding recipe development, managing research, and ensuring the highest standards in every pastry we create. An experienced pastry chef and instructor, Lesley brings her passion and expertise to drive the day-to-day operations of the kitchen, from experimentation to execution. She plays a vital role in pushing the boundaries of pastry innovation, constantly refining techniques and exploring new ideas. Over the past few months, we’ve explored everything from meringues and cakes to macarons and frostings—and there’s still so much more to discover!
One of the things we value about Lesley is her innovative approach to baking, especially her creative use of unique fruits and vegetables. She has a particular fondness for quince, medlar, and citrus fruits like yuzu. Lesley has an insatiable curiosity for pastry and is passionate about pushing the boundaries of what’s possible in this space. We can’t wait to see (and taste!) what she creates next.
Though she grew up in Seattle, Lesley has also lived in Denmark, Japan, and San Diego. When she’s not in the kitchen, she enjoys gardening, hiking, snowshoeing, and spending time with her family.
We are beyond excited to have Lesley on board as we continue the pastry research for our next book.
Stay tuned for more updates—we are excited for what is to come!
Pressure caramelization unlocks incredible flavors with just a few simple ingredients. Take our Pressure-Caramelized Carrot Soup, for example. When you combine carrots, butter, a pinch of salt, and baking soda in a pressure cooker, magic happens. The result is a combination of caramelization and the Maillard reaction (what people commonly call “browning”), which produces a rich, caramelized, nutty flavor. Pressure cookers are particularly suited for promoting the Maillard reaction because elevated temperatures encourage foods to develop their characteristic flavors far more quickly than conventional cooking methods (such as roasting) do, thereby transforming a long process into a short 20-minute cook time. Adding 0.5% baking soda when pressure-cooking further speeds flavor reactions by producing an alkaline pH of about 7.5.
By using this technique, the carrot flavor is further heightened because no heavy cream is needed. It’s just carrots, carrot juice, and butter. It is so delicious that you can only taste two things: the pure intense essence of the carrots and a warm undertone of caramel flavor.
Carrot soup is just the beginning. Using this technique, you can create variations with a wide range of vegetables and fruits. Under pressure, ingredients transform into something dramatically new yet strikingly familiar. Sweet corn becomes a creamy soup with popcorn-like notes, bananas turn into a dessert-like puree reminiscent of baked banana bread, and sweet potatoes intensify into a flavor powerhouse. Below, you can see the many variations that we made in Modernist Cuisine at Home.
If you’re looking for a way to tempt even the pickiest eaters into loving vegetables, this might be it. Simply swap the carrots in our recipe with another ingredient, adjust the liquid (e.g., corn juice, banana puree, or sweet potato water), and follow the same steps. For a thick puree, skip the final thinning steps and serve it as a decadent side dish.
Pro tip: While these recipes scale up beautifully, avoid scaling down too much, as the vegetables’ internal moisture is critical for creating steam.
The Science Behind the Technique
Vegetables have strong cell walls that soften under high heat, but they rarely exceed the boiling point of water in traditional cooking methods. Enter the pressure cooker, where elevated pressure raises the boiling point, allowing vegetables to cook quickly and evenly without drying out. The result? Juices stay concentrated, flavors intensify, and textures become luxuriously tender—perfect for soups and purees.
We exploit a similar technique to re-create a classic vegetable stew. Pressure-cooked barley is quick to make and perfectly toothsome. The pressure extracts juices undiluted from sweet onions, leeks, and garlic to yield an intense broth. And all the season’s best vegetables take on the texture of fudge in a matter of minutes.
You can use whichever vegetables and greens are currently at their peak. This pressure-caramelizing technique is versatile enough to accommodate a wide range of flavors.
Whether you’re savoring caramelized carrot soup, velvety sweet potato puree, or popcorn-flavored sweet corn soup, pressure cooking takes winter vegetables to the next level. Pressure-cooking isn’t just about speed—it’s about discovery. Try swapping carrots for your favorite seasonal vegetables, like parsnips, leeks, or squash, and let your pressure cooker do the rest. Before you know it, you’ll have a repertoire of unique hearty soups to make all year long.
Whipping siphons have revolutionized the art of foam-making, bringing efficiency and creativity to kitchens everywhere. But siphons are useful for making so much more than whipped cream. These tools allow chefs to transform fatty or starchy ingredients—even fluid gels—into delicate, stable foams with ease. We use ours all the time—for making fresh soda, greatly speeding up marinating, infusing fruit with a flavorful juice, or topping a dish with foam for flavor and textural contrast.
Whipping siphons require cartridges of gas to function. Nitrous oxide offers exceptional solubility in fats and oils without the risk of oxidation or bacterial growth. Each standard charger contains 8 g of this versatile gas, which dissolves into the liquid, pressurizing the siphon. When released, the mixture expands, creating the airy, smooth texture that defines culinary foams. Carbon dioxide is also another type of gas that can be used with a whipping siphon, but its high solubility and distinct fizzy taste often make it less ideal for creating creamy, stable foams. With nitrous oxide, however, chefs gain a reliable, flavor-neutral tool for culinary experimentation, whether crafting decadent dessert sauces or innovative savory toppings. This is why we often prefer using nitrous oxide; however, carbon dioxide is required if your goal is to carbonate rather than to foam.
The possibilities with a whipping siphon are virtually limitless, opening up a world of culinary creativity. Take, for instance, our Caramelized Carrot Pizza from Modernist Pizza (page 277), which features a coconut chutney foam. This foam—made with cilantro, mint, green chili pepper, coconut cream, and coconut milk—adds a vibrant, aromatic layer to the dish.
The siphon can also streamline the preparation of batters, like teff injera (Modernist Bread, Vol. 5:156) or tempura batter (Modernist Pizza, Vol. 3:281), creating light, consistent textures with ease.
Additionally, it’s a game changer for emulsion-based sauces, particularly during service. The siphon not only keeps sauces warm but also aerates them, creating volume and a lighter mouthfeel compared to dense, overly rich sauces. For example, we use it to prepare Sous Vide Hollandaise or sabayon sauce.
Tips for Using a Siphon
Whether you’re carbonating, infusing, or foaming, there are a few basics you should know. First off, the siphon requires cartridges of gas, also called chargers, to pressurize the chamber holding the liquid. Carbon dioxide is best used for carbonation only. We use nitrous oxide for foams, marinating, and infusing. A cartridge holds 8 g of gas, can be used only once, and costs about 50 cents. Two cartridges are typically sufficient to charge a 1 L siphon. Use about 2% gas, or 8 g of gas for every 400 g of liquid—more if the liquid is low in fat.
Listen to your siphon. If the seal on your whipping siphon is faulty, the gas will go in and right back out again. So listen closely as you charge it. You should hear gas filling the chamber—and then silence. Still hear hissing? Remnants of a previous foam might be causing a leak, or some part of the siphon could be damaged. Vent the siphon, remove the nozzle, unscrew the top, and take out the cartridge. Then clean these parts and the rubber gaskets thoroughly, and check to make sure that they are undamaged and in place.
The rubber gasket keeps the dissolved gas from escaping from the lid. Make sure it fits snugly along the top of the lid and is intact.
A disposable cartridge holds 8 g of nitrous oxide, the gas used to pressurize the siphon. The number of cartridges you need depends on the volume of the siphon, how full the siphon is, the fat content of the liquid to be whipped, and the temperature of that liquid. Generally, two cartridges are enough for a 1 L siphon.
Charging the siphon—inserting the gas cartridge so that it is pierced by the pin—increases the pressure inside it dramatically and forces the nitrous oxide to dissolve into the liquid. Shaking the container is crucial to ensure that the gas is evenly distributed.
Carbonating with a siphon
Create a sparkling drink or give porous food a surprising fizz with your whipping siphon. We slice carbonated grapes over chilled oysters and pair rich pâtés with sweet, tart, fizzy raisins. You need three cartridges of carbon dioxide to get really good carbonation in a 1 L whipping siphon or soda siphon.
STEPS TO CARBONATING WITH A SIPHON
Chill both the liquid and the siphon. Carbon dioxide is most soluble in cold liquids.
Pour in a cold liquid or add a chilled fruit. Do not overfill. Tighten the lid.
Insert the first carbon dioxide cartridge while holding the siphon upright. Hold down the nozzle to blow out the gas. The venting step is important because it replaces the air sitting above the liquid with carbon dioxide.
Insert one or two more cartridges of carbon dioxide; do not dispense any of the gas. Shake the siphon vigorously for 5–10 seconds.
Refrigerate the siphon to allow the gas to fully dissolve into the liquid. Let liquids sit for 2–4 hours. Let fruit sit for at least 4 hours, but preferably for 8–10 hours. Don’t open the siphon until you serve the fruit.
Open the siphon by holding it upright, pressing a cloth against the nozzle to contain any liquid, and slowly releasing the gas. Then remove the siphon lid, and pour out the soda or fruit. Dispensing soda through the nozzle results in a tingly and foamy drink, not a fizzy one, because the gas exits the liquid too quickly.
Whipping siphons were designed for aerating cream that is high in fat. (Nitrous oxide dissolves much better in fat than in water.) But you can foam any liquid thick enough to hold bubbles. Add starch, gelatin, eggs, or agar to thin liquids to give them enough body for foaming. A fine, creamy foam comforts and provides contrasting texture, like mashed potatoes, or whipped cream atop a dense dessert. Light, acidic, and airy foams can contribute an additional layer of flavor. The more air in the foam, the less concentrated its flavor, so use a very strong liquid when making a foam to serve as a garnish or sauce. A foam used to top some other flavorful food may not need to be as intense. It’s a matter of finding the right balance.
STEPS TO FOAMING WITH A SIPHON
Add the liquid to the siphon, and tighten the lid. Do not overfill it.
Charge the siphon with only one cartridge of nitrous oxide. Shake vigorously for 5–10 seconds. Resting is unnecessary; the gas dissolves quickly.
Turn the siphon upside down, and press the lever to dispense a bit of foam. Check the texture. One cartridge is usually sufficient for high-fat liquids. Add more cartridges to create progressively thicker foams. The foam will release any gas it can’t hold, so an extra charge won’t ruin it. Shake the siphon each time before you dispense the foam.
Pressure-infusing and pressure-marinating with a siphon
You can use the high gas pressure in a siphon to force liquid into a solid, thus speeding up the processes of infusing, brining, or marinating. Meat cut into cubes for kebabs, for example, takes 20 minutes to marinate instead of 1–12 hours. Infusing porous fruit with liquid is a fun twist—think strawberries and lemonade, apple slices bursting with apple juice, or watermelon with hints of green tea.
STEPS TO INFUSING AND MARINATING WITH A SIPHON
Add cubes of meat to the siphon, and cover them with marinade or brine. To infuse fruit with a liquid, add the fruit and enough liquid to cover it. Tighten the lid.
Charge the siphon with nitrous oxide. Use two cartridges in a 1 L siphon. Shake vigorously for 5–10 seconds.
Refrigerate the siphon for 20 minutes to let the flavors infuse.
Open the siphon by holding it upright, pressing a cloth against the nozzle to contain any liquid, and slowly releasing the gas. Then unscrew the siphon lid, and pour out the contents.
Pressure cookers are fantastic tools. They develop the characteristic flavors and textures of foods so quickly that what is conventionally a long, labor-intensive process becomes one hardly more time-consuming than a casual sauté. Risotto takes 7 minutes instead of 25. An intense chicken stock takes 90 minutes instead of 2 or 3 hours. You can even pressure-cook food in canning jars or in oven bags or Foodsaver bags rated for high temperatures—which means grits and polenta, for example, no longer require constant stirring to avoid sticking. The high temperatures inside the cooker also promote browning and caramelization, reactions that create flavors you can’t get otherwise in a moist cooking environment. If you’re not a believer yet, try our Caramelized Carrot Soup recipe.
A pressure cooker is essentially just a pot with a semi-sealed, lockable lid and a valve that controls the pressure inside. It works by capturing steam that, as it builds up, increases the pressure in the vessel. The pressure increase in turn raises the boiling point of water, which normally limits the cooking temperature of wet foods to 100°C / 212°F (at sea level; the boiling point is slightly lower at higher elevations). Because the effective cooking temperature is higher in the pressure cooker—as high as 120°C / 250°F—the cooking time can drop substantially. Whether you’re cooking a stock, braising a stew, or fixing a pot of beans, the temperature of these water-laden foods ordinarily won’t exceed the boiling point of water, 100°C / 212°F, until they dry out—which you usually want to avoid.
Fast, even, energy-efficient cooking is all very nice, but it’s the higher quality of the food that really clinches the deal. Wonderful culinary aromas wafting through the kitchen while you cook may warm the heart, but those are some of the most crucial components of the flavor of the food, and they are now forever lost to the air. The sealed environment of the pressure cooker locks in more of these volatile aromatic compounds. They condense onto the lid and drip back into the pot, so more of the nuances of the food are there when you put fork to mouth. You can learn more about how pressure cookers work here.
Pressure caramelized grains, as featured in Modernist Bread at Home.
Even if you bake more than you cook, pressure cookers are invaluable tools for bread and pizza enthusiasts. Do you include flavorful additions in your bread recipes? Pressure cookers can caramelize ingredients like vegetables, fruits, and grains, transforming them into rich inclusions for bread or pizza toppings. For perfectly cooked grains to be used in breads, a pressure cooker is your best friend. You can easily achieve al dente grains, as detailed on page 29 of Modernist Bread at Home. Pressure cookers allow for precise control over softness in a fraction of the time.
Pressure cookers also excel at caramelizing toppings and sauces for pizza, such as the Mushroom Comté Pizza sauce from Modernist Pizza. The book also highlights recipes for other pressure-caramelized sauces, including cauliflower puree, Bolognese, bisque, and more.
Pressure cookers can create delicious pressure-caramelized soups.
Using an Instant Pot is quite similar to a traditional pressure cooker, and most of the same safety tips and guidelines apply. Our books provide clear instructions for both tools, ensuring that you can use either confidently.
Safety Tips for Pressure-Cooking
Too many people shy away from pressure cookers because they are skittish about safety. Rest easy: today’s devices are designed and manufactured with safety as the primary concern. We recommend pressure cookers with built-in spring-loaded pressure valves or jiggling-weight pressure cookers. An electric pressure cooker, such as the Instant Pot, is even simpler—you set the time, and it does the rest. The older pressure cookers and pressure canners will also work, although they are a bit noisy and tend to lose steam and aroma.
Consumer-grade pressure cookers range in size from 4–10 L / 4–10 qt. Look for a stainless-steel cooker having a three-ply base (aluminum sandwiched by stainless steel), which helps avoid hot spots. Also make sure the cooker indicates when it has reached a gauge pressure of 1 bar / 15 psi, as commonly used in recipes.
Here are our recommendations for cooking safely with a pressure cooker:
Read and follow the safety instructions in the manual that came with the cooker.
Releasing a pressure cooker lid while its contents are still hot can splatter boiling water or food all over the kitchen—or you. Before opening the cooker, use the pressure-release button, let the cooker sit, or cool the pot under running water. The pressure valve will sink down fully when the cooker is depressurized and is safe to open.
Before cooking, check that the ring of rubber lining around the lid isn’t dried out or cracked. These gaskets don’t last forever; replace them as recommended by the manufacturer.
Make sure the rim of the pot and the gasket are clean; any food particles stuck there could break the seal.
Don’t fill the cooker more than two-thirds full. For beans and grains, which tend to swell as they cook, fill the cooker only half full.
Avoid cooking foods that froth, like oatmeal and pasta. The foam can block the steam valves and pressure-release vents.
Tip the opening away from you as you lift the lid off the cooker to protect yourself from the steam that is released.
Use canning tongs to remove hot canning jars from the cooker, and let the contents cool slightly before opening the jars.
To cook porridges in a pressure cooker, put the grains in canning jars, and rest them on a trivet. We don’t recommend directly pressure-cooking porridges because they will scorch the bottom of your pot. (See more about using canning jars in pressure cookers below).
How to Use a Pressure Cooker
Cooks who are new to pressure-cooking often use too much heat and over-pressurize the cooker. It’s important to realize that over-pressurizing the cooker doesn’t make the temperature inside it any higher—it merely causes the safety valve to release steam, which allows the water inside to resume boiling. Repeated over-pressurization can ruin both the flanges and the seal around the lid. Familiarize yourself with the manufacturer’s instructions for understanding when your cooker is fully pressurized, over-pressurized, and depressurized.
Step 1: Prepare the ingredients. If you will be browning onions or other aromatics before pressure-cooking them, save a pan by sautéing the food directly in the base of the pressure cooker before covering it with the lid.
Step 2: Add all the ingredients, stir, and lock the lid. Stirring to evenly distribute the liquid or fat is important to keep bits from burning on the bottom of the cooker. Once you lock the lid, you won’t be able to stir again.
Step 3: Warm the cooker on the stovetop over medium-high heat. Watch or listen for the cues that the cooker has reached full pressure, and then turn the heat down to low. Adjust the heat as needed to keep the cooker fully pressurized.
Step 4: Start timing the cooking as soon as the cooker reaches the target gauge pressure given in the recipe. If your cooker has a spring-loaded pressure valve, the valve should pop up just to the line, not beyond it. The cooker should not hiss loudly. If you have a jiggling-weight pressure valve, the weight should move three to five times a minute; it shouldn’t dance around wildly.
Step 5: After cooking, remove the pressure cooker from the heat, and let it cool. You can simply let the cooker sit for several minutes to cool down if the food can tolerate some additional cooking (as stocks can, for example). For foods that are more time-sensitive, such as risottos, run lukewarm water over the rim of the lid to depressurize the cooker quickly. (Don’t let water run into the pressure valve.) Some cookers have a manual quick-release knob or dial; be sure to read the manufacturer’s instructions on how to use this feature safely. Never attempt to open a pressurized cooker. Not only will it spray hot liquid, but you’ll also lose a lot of the flavorful vapors.
Step 6: Set the cooker in the kitchen sink and unlock the lid. If the lid is difficult to open, don’t force it; let the cooker cool longer until it opens with little resistance.
Step 7: If the food isn’t done, simply finish it on the stovetop without sealing the lid. Alternatively, return the pressure cooker to full pressure, and continue cooking.
Pressure-Cooking in Canning Jars
Several recipes in Modernist Cuisine at Home and Modernist Cuisine take advantage of cooking in canning jars (also known as Mason jars). We use them for ingredients that would otherwise need an intensive amount of stirring, such as polenta, and for making small batches of rendered fat, garlic confit, or extracted juices.
Always leave at least 1.3 cm / ½ in of headspace when filling the jars. The jars should also never touch the bottom of the cooker. Set them on a metal rack or trivet—or, in a pinch, on crumpled sheets of aluminum foil. Add enough water to cover the rack so that the pressure cooker can build up steam. After fully tightening the lids of the jars, loosen them a quarter turn; otherwise, the pressure may crack the jars or blow their lids off inside the cooker. After using a jar for pressure-cooking, inspect the glass for cracks before cooking with it again.
Other Tips
Most spring-loaded pressure valves are ringed with two lines or colors to indicate low pressure and high pressure.
We always cook at a gauge pressure of 1 bar / 15 psi.
A jet of steam or fog from an overextended pressure valve means that the pressure cooker is over-pressurized, and for safety’s sake the valve is relieving the excess pressure. Over-pressurizing can bend the flanges that hold the lid tightly on the pot; they won’t seal properly, and the pressure cooker will then be useless.
Pressure cookers are a game changer in the kitchen, offering speed, efficiency, and an unparalleled depth of flavor. Whether you’re crafting a velvety risotto, an aromatic stock, or perfectly tender beans, a pressure cooker can help you achieve results that are as impressive as they are effortless.
From the science behind their high temperatures to the practical safety tips and techniques, mastering this versatile tool can transform your cooking experience. With just a little practice, you’ll discover why pressure cookers have become indispensable for both home cooks and professionals alike.
If you’re a pizza enthusiast, you know that achieving the perfect crust is an art. That’s especially true when it comes to the handling and shaping of your pizza dough. A supple, extensible dough is easier to shape or stretch to fit a pan. But some doughs tear or break so easily that they seem actively stubborn.
Here are two ways to make your dough stretchier, either by increasing hydration or using a conditioning ingredient (or dough relaxer) that will make the dough more extensible. Both approaches weaken gluten, but each does so in a different way. Let’s consider the hydration strategy first.
Option 1: Increasing Hydration for Stretchier Dough
One approach to make your dough more extensible is to increase its hydration. Simply put, adding more water to your dough recipe can strengthen the gluten network up to a certain point. Beyond that threshold, which depends on the flour’s gluten-forming protein content and other variables, excess moisture can flood the proteins and hinder the formation of long gluten chains. As a result, high-hydration doughs become far more relaxed and extensible than drier doughs.
However, there’s a trade-off. While increasing hydration can improve stretchiness, it can also make your dough sticky and challenging to handle. Dealing with high-hydration doughs that cling to your work surface and fingers can be frustrating. That’s why we’re happy to present an alternative solution.
Option 2: Weakening Gluten with Ingredients
The second option for enhancing your dough’s stretchiness involves weakening the gluten. This is typically achieved by adding ingredients like eggs and fats to the dough. These components limit the length of the gluten chains, making the dough more extensible. Unfortunately, most pizza doughs don’t contain eggs or use only minimal amounts of fats, which might not have a significant impact on dough extensibility.
However, there is another method to achieve this without altering the dough’s basic ingredients. Enter dough relaxers, also known as reducing agents. These additives can help your dough relax and stretch, making it more manageable. In our experiments, ingredients such as meat tenderizer, bromelain (enzyme found in pineapple),* and papain (fruit protease enzymes) have proven effective in improving dough extensibility. Meat tenderizers, in particular, work surprisingly well for dough. They function like chemical cleavers, cutting long strands of gluten into shorter pieces by breaking certain bonds between protein molecules. While this process is temporary, it results in a more flexible gluten network that promotes the growth of larger gas bubbles, giving your crust that sought-after light-and-airy texture.
Another option is deactivated yeast, which becomes accessible through the deactivation process. This also happens when yeast is frozen, which is why freezing baked pizza is preferred over freezing pizza dough for long-term storage.
*Bromelain can be found in drugstores, some grocery stores, and online, often in the form of a supplement.
Using Fruit Juice as a Dough Relaxer
If you’re considering using dough relaxers, you might encounter challenges when it comes to sourcing purified versions of protease enzymes as a noncommercial dough maker. While fruit juices can serve as a wonderful alternative, they come with their own set of considerations.
First, some fruit juices are so potent that they are practical only when making large batches of dough—even just one drop more can be too much in a smaller recipe. Second, the enzyme content in fruits can vary significantly, as it depends on the fruit’s ripeness. This means you may need to experiment to determine how much enzyme a particular fruit contains. Using fresh fruit juice is essential since canned and bottled juices deactivate the protease enzymes. Fortunately, only a small amount of juice, extracted from a chunk or two of fruit, is usually sufficient for your pizza dough needs.
Our Favorite Dough Relaxers
To address the challenge of shaping pizza dough, we tested various dough relaxers to find the sweet spot where the dough was both malleable enough to shape and strong enough to bake as pizza. Dough relaxers can be divided into natural (unpurified) and purified types. The latter is preferred for their consistency and precision.
While we wouldn’t recommend using dough relaxers for rye and whole wheat pizza doughs, we found several options that worked wonders for different types of pizza dough:
Meat tenderizer—This made a significant difference in Neapolitan pizza dough, making it easier to shape consistently.
Bromelain—A proteolytic enzyme found in pineapple, bromelain worked well with high-hydration al taglio dough, making it easier to extend to the sides of the pan.
Fruit protease enzymes—Fruit juices, such as kiwi, can be used as a delivery vehicle for protease enzymes, though their potency can vary. Experimentation may be required to determine the optimal amount for your dough.
You can find a more in-depth recommendation in Modernist Pizza, vol. 1, page 327.
It’s worth noting that the influence of dough relaxers on focaccia and New York square pizzas was minimal, and the final baked results were similar to the original recipe. For thin-crust pizzas and Detroit-style pizza, using relaxers is optional. And for deep-dish pizza dough, it typically rolls out easily without the need for relaxers.
In conclusion, improving your dough handling and shaping skills is essential for achieving the perfect pizza crust. Experiment with hydration levels and consider using dough relaxers to strike the right balance between strength and flexibility in your dough. With the right techniques and additives, you’ll be well on your way to creating the pizza of your dreams.
People have strong opinions about crumb and crust—crispy, soft, charred, blond, or nonexistent. The diversity of preferences is hardly surprising; after all, the rim crust is an integral part of most, but not all, pizzas. Understanding the science of baking dough is something that can help you take control of your own preferred texture in dough by using several different recommended ingredients. Today, we’ll dive into the science and some basic modifications that you can make to some recipes.
The Science Behind the Dough
Most crusts emerge from the oven with a crispy exterior, while the interior remains a hot, soft gel of starch and protein molecules. As the crust cools, water vapor escapes and starch granules recrystallize, altering the texture of the crumb. Understanding how these processes work can help you learn how to adapt your own pizza crusts.
The Role of Dough Modifiers
To influence the texture of crumb and crust, you can experiment with dough modifiers. Ingredients such as amylases (a type of enzyme found in flour), sugar, pregelatinized starch, and certain emulsifiers contribute to texture and enhance pizza crusts in unique ways.
Our Recommendations for a Softer Crust
For those seeking a softer crust, we recommend the use of amylases with intermediate stability, as they continue to break down starch molecules at a slower rate.
Alternatively, consider incorporating fava or soybean flour, known for containing lipoxygenase enzymes that contribute to a softer crumb. However, be cautious of their strong beany flavor, which may be better suited for breads.
Modernist Pizza features a high-hydration Neapolitan pizza dough that incorporates the use of pregelatinized flour to help increase the hydration of the dough while maintaining the ability to mix the dough, creating a delightfully soft crumb. You can find it in vol. 2:127.
How does sugar affect dough? Sugar and humectants act as moisture magnets, attracting water molecules that cling to the crust. This process postpones starch migration, preserving the soft texture of the crumb. The result? A pizza crust that maintains its delectable tenderness.
How do amylases affect dough? Amylases interact uniquely with starch, breaking down long molecules into shorter segments that recrystallize at a slower pace. Not all amylases serve as effective softeners, making it crucial to consider thermostability. While fungal amylases are heat-sensitive, declining post-gelatinization, bacterial counterparts remain active. Optimal crumb softening occurs with amylases boasting intermediate stability, active during gelatinization but ceasing at around 80°C / 176°F. We prefer to use diastatic malt powder, an enzyme derived from the germination of barley.
How does fava/soybean flour affect dough? Fava or soybean flour is used by some bakers for a softer crumb. Loaded with lipoxygenase enzymes, these legume flours break down lipids in flour, contributing to a softening effect. However, caution is advised due to their strong, beany flavor, potentially imparting an unpleasant aftertaste to pizza crusts. While suitable for breads, these flours may not be the ideal choice for pizza experimentation.
Our Recommendations for a Crispy Crust
If a crispier crust is your goal, try adding polydextrose (a type of soluble fiber) or sodium alginate (a carbohydrate product of seaweed). These additives enhance the crispiness of your pizza by delaying the softening of the crust during retrogradation. A little goes a long way, and we suggest experimenting with around 1% polydextrose in your dough to achieve that perfect crunch.
Another alternative for a crispier crust includes using 5% pregelatinized masa harina flour. You can pregelatinize this flour by whisking the flour with 21°C / 70°F water at a ratio of 1 to 4. Whisk together the water and flour in a small saucepot, cooking over medium heat while whisking constantly until the mixture reaches 65°C / 150°F. Then cool over an ice bath to room temperature. As a result, your flour will become pregelatinized.
Where Can You Find These Ingredients
Diastatic malt powder is our preferred amylase with intermediate stability. You can find it online at places like Amazon or Modernist Pantry.
Fava or soybean flour is sold by Bob’s Red Mill and other sellers.
Polydextrose can be found online through retailers like Modernist Pantry.
Sodium alginate can be found in powder form at some grocery stores or online through retailers like Modernist Pantry.
Understanding the science behind pizza dough opens up a world of possibilities, regardless of whether you’re a home chef or a seasoned pizzaiolo. Subscribe to our newsletter and follow us on social media for more Modernist Cuisine techniques, recipes, and announcements.
Flour is the fundamental building block of bread and pizza dough. At its most basic, flour is just pulverized grain. Recent research suggests that it may have been used for food since the Paleolithic Period! Flour is an ingredient far more complex than it may appear, made up of starch, protein, water, fats, and enzymes. There are many kinds of flour, made from wheat, almond, and other ingredients.
In terms of all-around performance, wheat is the best flour for bread and pizza dough. Its high-gluten content gives the dough structure; it has a distinctive flavor profile and the right starch for active fermentation. Wheat grain is made of three main parts: germ, bran, and endosperm. The vast majority of flour on the market is made from the endosperm, which is softer and whiter than the other two parts. Whole-grain flour is made with bran and germ as well.
The label on a bag of flour can include a lot of terms. Flour type (think bread flour, all-purpose flour, etc.) is most common among those terms, which may also include added ingredients and marketing buzzwords. The type of flour on the label will give you a rough approximation of a flour’s protein count—and we do mean rough. The protein content can vary wildly from brand to brand, so be sure to check the label.
Here’s a breakdown of some of the most common flour types to help you decide which is right for the type of dough that you’re making.
00 flour: Using 00 flour for pizza is popular, and we recommend it for our Neapolitan pizza. This Italian classification system establishes a minimum protein content for each grade: Tipo 00: ≥9%, Tipo 0: ≥11%, Tipo 1: ≥12%, Tipo 2: ≥12%, Integral: ≥12%
High-gluten bread flour: With 13% protein or more, this will make an even stronger dough than bread flour. It’s particularly good for breads and doughs mostly leavened with commercial yeast—like pizza dough, French Lean Bread, and bagels—as well as breads that require structure (such as enriched doughs, like Sablée Brioche).
AP flour: The protein content of all-purpose flour can vary from brand to brand; generally it’s 10%–11%. It’s not necessarily good for all purposes. In France, the classic baguette is traditionally made with all-purpose types of flours, and we like it for our thin-crust and deep-dish pizza doughs. Because protein content can vary wildly, we recommend making sure you know the protein content of your AP flour before making bread or pizza dough with it.
Pastry flour: As its name states, this flour is intended for pastry preparations, in which a low-gluten percentage is desired—for example, cookies, muffins, and pound cakes in which a short crumb versus a chewy crumb is the goal. We use it in combination with strong flours to make dough softer and easier to use (for stretching and shaping). We also use it in our pork cheek hum bao recipe. Its protein content is around 9%.
Cake flour: Typically under 9% protein, cake flour is most commonly used in very delicate baked-good preparations, such as sponge cakes, because it produces a crumbly texture that is uniform and fine. We found blending cake flour with bread flour works well for some of our thin-crust pizza doughs, such as the Brazilian Thin Crust.
Self-rising flour: This type of flour is not meant for yeast-raised breads or pizza doughs. You can make your own self-rising flour by combining any flour with 3% of its weight in baking powder. The protein content is usually around 8.5%.
You can learn much more about flour in Modernist Bread at Home, Modernist Bread, and Modernist Pizza. Subscribe to our newsletter and follow us on social media for more Modernist Cuisine techniques, recipes, and announcements.
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