Yeast is the engine of bread making. It is important for leavening the bread and also affects the flavor and smell of bread. The longer the period of fermentation, the more pronounced the yeast flavors become because the microbes have more time to produce aromatic compounds. Yeast also contributes to the crust’s color by releasing compounds critical to the Maillard reaction during baking.

For thousands of years, bakers have been harnessing yeast effluent to inflate their doughs. Scientists now understand the biochemistry of yeast respiration and fermentation in great detail. We’ll cover a breakdown of that process here, as well as some other yeast tips and tricks.

The Science Behind Yeast

These single-celled fungi feed off the simple sugars in the dough, then produce carbon dioxide and ethanol as very welcome by-products, in a process known as fermentation. These gases are what make bread dough rise, inflating the bubbles in the dough, just as steam does in the oven during baking. Yeast also plays a role in gluten development.

• The process of fermentation begins soon after the ingredients are mixed together and continues during the bread-making stages of bulk fermentation, final proofing, and even baking. Simply put, fermentation is a metabolic process during which yeasts (sometimes in tandem with lactic acid bacteria [LAB]) break down nutrients (sugars, oxygen, amino acids, micronutrients, etc.) in order to extract the energy and raw materials they need to live and grow.

• Immediately after mixing, when oxygen is present and sugars are in short supply, yeasts expel carbon dioxide and water in a process known as respiration. When the oxygen is used up, fermentation begins, and yeasts produce carbon dioxide as well as ethanol (which is alcohol—it evaporates during baking).

• During the stage that bakers refer to as fermentation—from the time the dough is mixed to just before baking—yeasts swing between their two metabolic modes each time their environment changes. As a baker folds, kneads, and degasses the dough, more oxygen flows into it, so the yeasts can respire for a while. They then switch back to fermenting as the oxygen gets used up and more fermentable sugars become available.
  • High salt or sugar concentrations and low moisture slow yeast growth and fermentation. For instance, low-hydration, sweetened, or heavily salted doughs take longer to ferment.
  • Bakers can also control microbial growth and fermentation rate by adjusting the proofing temperature.

• The dough is ready to be degassed when it is puffy—by this time carbon dioxide accounts for over half of its total volume. Degassing, which happens when dough is folded during bulk fermentation, reduces the volume of the dough by 20%–40% and breaks large carbon dioxide bubbles into smaller ones.

• Once degassing stops, the bubbles start filling again with carbon dioxide. The point of degassing is not just to add to the number of bubbles, although that is important. The release and growth of bubbles, along with the stretching of the dough, also strengthens its netlike gluten matrix.
  • Working the dough shifts molecules of water and protein and stretches out proteins so that more gluten chains can form. To become bread, the dough must contain the gas the yeasts have created, and to do that, the dough needs something that serves as a membrane, like the stretchy surface of a balloon.

• In well-mixed dough, the lattice of gluten chains acts much like rubber: it provides structure, but it’s also extensible—as the bubbles produced by the yeasts expand, the membrane of gluten chains is flexible enough to expand as well.

• During shaping and proofing, yeasts continue to ferment.

• Yeast loves a warm environment, and when the dough first begins to heat up in the oven, the yeast experiences a burst of frenzied activity (contributing to what is known as oven spring—see page 124 of Modernist Bread at Home and Modernist Bread vol. 3:290) before the rising temperature finally kills it.

Helpful Tips for Working with Yeast

• There are three ways to incorporate yeast into a dough: adding commercial yeast directly to the dough (known as the direct dough method), using what is known as a preferment (see page 42 of Modernist Bread at Home and Modernist Bread vol. 3:14), or using a combination of the two.

• We prefer instant yeast for making direct breads because it has a longer shelf life than fresh yeast and more leavening power than active dry yeast.

• Dry yeasts, both instant and active, will benefit from blooming (although it’s not technically necessary for instant dry yeast), which means hydrating the yeast in water or other liquid, like milk. Blooming ensures that the yeast hydrates fully and disperses effectively throughout the dough. You can also just mix it into the flour if you are using instant dry yeast, but we get a slightly greater loaf volume when we bloom the yeast first. For tips on blooming yeast, see Strategies for Incorporating Yeast on page 40 of Modernist Bread at Home and Modernist Bread vol. 3:12.

• Bakers can also stimulate or restrain the growth and fermentation rate of the microbes by controlling the temperature of loaves as they proof. Refrigeration slows down fermentation. Conversely, a warm and humid proofer is like a yeast sauna that is perfect for speeding up fermentation. You can find more information about how the environment influences fermentation in Course 3: Making Bread with Busy Schedules.

• Sometimes dough is accidentally overproofed, which is when the dough rises too much. Fortunately, dough CPR can help save your dough so that you don’t have to throw it out.

Further Reading

• Modernist Bread: Chapter 12—Fermentation
• Modernist Bread at Home: Chapter 3—Fermentation
• Planning to bake bread—Modernist Bread at Home, page 10
• Strategies for incorporating yeast—Modernist Bread at Home, page 40 / Modernist Bread vol. 3:12
• Is fresh yeast best?
• Why does baking bread smell so good?

Sourdough is arguably the oldest form of leavened bread. The first loaves were sourdoughs, and levain was also the first leavening agent. Travel to bakeries and kitchens in any corner of the world, and you’ll likely find some form of sourdough bread. Sourdoughs are as diverse in flavor, texture, and volume as the cultures in which they’re made.

Throughout this blog, we refer to sourdough starter as levain. Why? We use “levain” to distinguish it from sourdough bread to avoid any confusion. In our books Modernist Bread and Modernist Bread at Home, “levain” means the starter, while “sourdough” refers to the bread itself. Here, we’ll discuss what makes levain different from simply using yeast or other types of preferments as well as the benefits that it can bring to bread. 

The Difference Between Commercial Yeast and Preferments

Yeast can be incorporated into bread directly (a.k.a. direct dough), as a preferment (previously fermented dough), or as a combination of the two.

Fast and efficient, the direct dough method, which utilizes commercial yeast, takes as few as 3 hours from start to finish to bake a loaf of bread. When fermentation occurs that quickly, however, there is less time for flavor to develop.

Using a preferment involves either mixing a portion of water and flour together and inoculating it with commercial yeast or allowing wild yeast and bacteria to colonize it (called a levain, or sourdough starter); over a period of hours or days, fermentation gets underway. After the preferment “ripens,” you mix it into the dough. Because of the longer fermentation time, the use of a preferment will improve a bread’s flavor and texture; this is particularly the case when using levain, which gives sourdough its distinctive tang.

A combination method involves adding commercial yeast along with a preferment. Some bakers choose this method because the commercial yeast accelerates the fermentation time, while the preferment contributes flavor and accelerates hydration, which cuts down on mixing time.

Types of Preferments

Overall, a preferment is a portion of the dough made in advance, anywhere from 3 hours ahead to several days. Once mixed, the preferment is allowed to ripen at room temperature. When it is finally added to the dough, yeast activity is well underway (as is fermentation), and the portion of flour used in the preferment is fully hydrated.

There are several benefits to using a preferment. First, because the flour in the preferment is already hydrated, the preferment functions as a partially developed dough, which cuts down the overall mixing time. Preferments can also contribute flavor to the dough. The longer the period of time the yeast is given to feed and multiply, the more aromatic compounds are created as a by-product of fermentation.

We divide preferments into three categories:

1. Those started with commercial yeast
2. Those started with wild yeasts and bacteria, which we call levain (sourdough starter)
3. A combination of commercial yeast and levain. Second Chance Levain is a combination of the two and one of the best shortcuts we’ve found in our bread-making research. Essentially, when you use an inactive levain in your dough, it will provide only flavor and some hydrated flour. It will not supply any leavening, so you must add instant yeast to the recipe. We teach you how to do this on page 52 of Modernist Bread at Home.

Types of Commercial Yeast–Based Preferments

Commercial yeast–based preferments mix flour, water, yeast, and sometimes other ingredients. They mature within 3 to 18 hours and are then incorporated into the bread dough, often with additional yeast. These preferments primarily aid in jump-starting hydration, reducing mixing time, and enhancing the final bread structure. Here are the main types:

Poolish—a high-hydration (equal parts flour and water) preferment commonly used in recipes due to its ease of use

• Pros: easy to mix and incorporate into dough; enhances flavor and texture
• Cons: requires precise timing to avoid over-fermentation

Biga—a drier version of poolish that is typically used in Italian breads

• Pros: adds a subtle flavor complexity
• Cons: stiffer and harder to mix; often requires an electric mixer

Sponge—made with flour, water, yeast, and enriched with eggs, butter, sugar, and/or milk; primarily used in enriched breads like brioche and challah

• Pros: ideal for enriched doughs; adds richness and tenderness
• Cons: can be difficult to mix evenly into dough; requires more effort

Then there is levain. Technically, levains are also a type of preferment, but they’re not started with commercial yeast. Given their popularity, we will spend the majority of this course discussing levains. 

What Is a Levain?

Levain, the original preferment, gives sourdough its tangy flavor. Made from flour and water, it ferments naturally with wild yeast and lactic acid bacteria. The fermentation process varies depending on the method used for inoculation, resulting in a complex interplay of microorganisms that contribute to the unique taste and texture of sourdough. If you’re curious about the science behind this process, check out our blog for a deeper dive.

Learn more about sourdough science here.

The Benefits of Using a Levain

Using a levain to leaven bread has been a popular method for millennia. Despite the advent of commercial yeast, there are many compelling reasons to use a levain:

Depth of flavor: Breads made with levain have a depth of flavor that commercial yeast–based breads simply can’t match. Most commercial baker’s yeasts are made using a single strain of yeast within the species Saccharomyces cerevisiae,but the yeasts in levain are varied, making each unique flavor-wise. The lactic acid bacteria significantly affects flavor. The extended fermentation process develops complex, nuanced tastes that elevate the final product.

Flexible baking schedule: Levain-based breads ferment more slowly than those made with commercial yeast. This extended fermentation time offers more flexibility in your baking schedule. Sourdoughs are more forgiving, allowing for a broader window of time to bake the bread.

Reduced proofing time: Since some of the flour is already fermented before the dough is mixed, the overall proofing time can be shortened. This can be particularly advantageous when managing your time in the kitchen.

Cost-effective: Using a levain eliminates the need to purchase commercial yeast. While there are costs associated with feeding the levain, they are generally minimal compared to the ongoing cost of buying yeast.

Improved gluten structure: The natural acidity in a levain helps to reinforce the gluten structure of the bread. The lactic acid bacteria mix also strengthens the gluten network in the dough because the acids secreted by these bacteria strengthen those gluten bonds. This results in a better texture and a more robust loaf.

Extended shelf life: Levain slows down the staling process and inhibits mold growth. A loaf of bread made with levain can remain fresh, and even improve in flavor, for up to 3 days after baking.

The Drawbacks of Using a Levain

While there are many benefits to using a levain, there are also some drawbacks to be aware of:

Maintenance: Keeping a levain healthy requires regular feeding and care. This maintenance can be time-consuming and requires a level of commitment.

Inflexible quantities: You may end up with either too much or too little levain when you need it. This can be inconvenient, especially for last-minute baking.

Time-consuming preparation: Preparing a levain takes time. You can’t simply whip up a batch on a whim, which can be limiting for spontaneous bakers.

Tedious for infrequent bakers: For those who don’t bake regularly, the ongoing process of starting and feeding a levain can feel tedious. Some may find the effort to be burdensome after making a few loaves, even if those loaves are successful.

Space requirement: A levain needs a dedicated area in your kitchen to “live.” This can occupy valuable kitchen or workspace, which may be a concern for those with limited room.

Despite these challenges, we believe that creating your own levain is a worthwhile and rewarding endeavor.

FURTHER READING:

• Sourdough Science
• Second chance levain recipe—Modernist Bread at Home, p. 52
• How to make a poolish—Modernist Bread at Home, p. 44
• Preferments—Modernist Bread at Home, p. 42
• The cycles of yeast respiration and fermentation—Modernist Bread vol. 2:270
• Yeast storage conditions and shelf life—Modernist Bread vol. 2:277
• The evolution of a sourdough—Modernist Bread vol. 2:290–291
• The uses of other preferments such as a sponge or biga—Modernist Bread vol. 3:22–27
• Building an osmotolerant levain—Modernist Bread vol. 3:56
• The pregelatinization method (otherwise known as a yukone or tangzhong) in bread—Modernist Bread vol. 2:386
• Cooking with a yukone/tangzhong in Japanese Sandwich Bread—Modernist Bread at Home, p. 246

Flour is probably one of the first ingredients that comes to mind when you consider making bread. Flour is the core matter of bread and provides the main structure that anchors the other ingredients in the baked loaf in part because its largest component is starch. 

From a bread-making perspective, there are two main types of flour that contribute to a bread’s structure: wheat flour and rye flour. However, we will still cover other flour types, including gluten-free alternatives, in this post.

WHEAT FLOUR

The term “flour” is generically used for wheat flours, which contain two important gluten-forming proteins, glutenin and gliadin, that combine to form an elastic network of gluten when hydrated, trapping gas bubbles and allowing for an airy crumb.

Changing the amount of flour in a bread recipe warrants considerable focus because wheat flours vary in bran, germ, and protein content, which likewise affect the composition of the dough and characteristics of the baked loaf. 

HOW IT WORKS

• When the gliadin and glutenin proteins come into contact with water in a process known as hydration, they organize into strands called gluten.

• As the flour becomes fully hydrated, these strands combine with one another to create an elastic webbing throughout the dough that is key to the final structure of the baked bread.

• Also, as the dough is mixed together, millions of tiny bubbles are formed (for more on this, see page 59 of Modernist Bread at Home and Modernist Bread vol. 2:32). These bubbles will later inflate like balloons; it is the presence and the elastic nature of the gluten network that allow this expansion to occur.

Another important component of flour is starch. When it combines with water, enzymes break some of it down into simple sugars; these sugars fuel the yeast activity that makes bread rise and aids in the browning of the crust. Additionally, when the dough is heated, the starch gelatinizes, which contributes to the structure of the crumb. See our latest blog post for more details.

Wheat flour contains gliadin and glutenin, but not every type of flour does, and those that do can contain them in varying percentages. Flours well suited to bread making are referred to as “strong” flours and may be marketed as bread flour and/or high-protein flour.

As a general rule, flours with a higher protein content absorb more water than those with a lower protein content. Bread flour typically contains a protein content between 11.5% and 13%. If you substitute an all-purpose flour with 10% protein, your baked loaf will likely have a tighter crumb. Wheat flours with a low protein content are not generally intended for breads.

The kind of flour used in bread making can have an impact on crumb; typically, breads made with a greater percentage or entirely of whole wheat flour or rye flour have a denser crumb (for a more detailed discussion on each, see pages 165 and 282 of Modernist Bread at Home or Modernist Bread vol. 2:13). Bread made with coarse-ground 100% rye flour does not form an elastic network and tends to be dense; using finely ground rye flour can produce a 100% rye bread that is less dense (see our blog post for more).

Want more details on the different classifications of wheat flour? Click here for more information on our blog.

RYE FLOUR

Rye works a little differently. Rather than relying on gluten, rye flour forms networks through starches and pentosans (large, complex sugar molecules). Rye flour differs from wheat flour in that rye contains a ratio of glutenin to gliadin that prevents it from producing enough gluten to form an elastic dough like wheat flour does.

HOW IT WORKS

• Rye flour contains higher levels of pentosans than wheat. This gives rye better water-binding abilities than wheat flour, and it’s why rye dough needs more water than wheat dough.

• When pentosans mix with water, they form a viscous solution that traps carbon dioxide. In fact, rye’s pentosans can absorb up to 16 times their weight in water, which is why rye doughs are notoriously sticky and slack.

• The carbon dioxide that’s produced by the yeasts and trapped inside this viscous liquid is what ultimately determines the consistency of the crumb. Interestingly, pentosans delay starch retrogradation, which is why rye bread can stay moist for days and sometimes weeks.

We find it fascinating that for all the grains humans grow, there are two key factors in making bread—pentosans versus gluten—and the mechanisms couldn’t be more different. 

OTHER FLOURS

Of course, you can grind almost any grain into flour, but the problem is, most other grains don’t have a means to create structure as dough proofs, which allows gas bubbles to expand. Wheat and rye contain the elements that make this possible.

All starches, including those in non-wheat or non-rye flours, do a good job of providing additional structure once the dough heats up in the oven, as rigid walls form to support the crumb. That’s because starches gelatinize with heat plus hydration, and once that gel forms, it helps to prevent the loaf from collapsing.

What all this means is you can’t substitute another flour for wheat flour in a recipe and expect to get the same results. Flours made from grains other than wheat and rye can play great supporting roles in your bread-baking repertoire (they can add a lot of interesting flavor and texture to bread). You won’t typically be using any of these other flours on their own. Instead, they’re often used in conjunction with wheat flour and/or other ingredients.

There’s a fairly simple rule: when you’re making bread with wheat flour, you may add up to 30% of these other flours (except soy) and still get a decent loaf. Any more than that will hurt the crumb. If you’re not starting with a base of wheat flour, you’ll need something else, such as xanthan gum or vital wheat gluten (see page 338 of Modernist Bread or Modernist Bread at Home, page 345), to help turn other flours into risen loaves of bread.

GLUTEN-FREE OPTIONS

Another reason to explore other flours is for special diets and gluten-free baking. Many companies have developed commercial gluten-free flours that can be substituted 1:1 for all-purpose flour. These mixes work well, though generally not as well as wheat flour would. While these premade mixes are convenient and can be used in some of our recipes, we prefer our own Gluten-Free Flour Blend on page 351 of Modernist Bread at Home and Modernist Bread vol. 5:284.

Our gluten-free flour blend combines white rice flour, brown rice flour, cornstarch, tapioca starch, and glutinous rice flour. (Don’t be put off by the word “glutinous” because the flour doesn’t contain any gluten—in the case of rice and rice flour, “glutinous” simply refers to the stickiness of the rice.) Of these ingredients, the glutinous rice flour played a major role in our baking success: when hydrated in doughs and then baked, it retains a particular chewiness reminiscent of gluten. Its flavor is too strong to make an appetizing loaf all on its own, but it does contribute a great deal when mixed with other flours. 

Further Reading

• Modernist Bread vol. 2—Chapter 8: Flour
• Choosing the Right Wheat Flour for the Job
• Gluten-free flour recipe—Modernist Bread at Home, page 351 / Modernist Bread vol. 5:284
• How Rye Works
• The Sad Tale of American Rye
• Bread Is Lighter than Whipped Cream
• Gluten—How does it work?  

Brioche is a bread with an identity crisis. Simultaneously cakey, yeasty, bready, and sweet, brioche offers a unique richness that comes from being laden with butter. In fact, our master recipe uses 50% butter, though brioche can be made with as much as 100% butter for an even more decadent experience.

With its enriched dough, brioche serves as the foundation for many other breads, making it the granddad of sweet, enriched breads. From infused butters and cheese to nut butters and even olive oil, this versatile dough can handle a wide array of fats. Brioche can also be shaped into individual portions, baked into loaves, laminated like a croissant, or even fried or microwaved. The possibilities are nearly endless. As an additional bonus, brioche like other enriched breads has a longer shelf life than direct breads, making it a great option for holiday meals since it can be made a day ahead of time.

Despite its adaptability, brioche isn’t easy to master. Though you might see fast-food hamburgers served on brioche buns, a truly well-made brioche requires a careful balance of technique. It’s a dough that must be handled with care to ensure the crumb is strong enough to support the structure without overbaking, which would result in a thick, disappointing crust. Achieving that perfect, rich, and satisfying loaf means understanding how to develop the gluten while incorporating the butter without compromising the dough’s integrity. The reward, however, is found in tearing off soft, delicate strands of freshly baked brioche—a simple pleasure you won’t get from other breads. If you’re new to making brioche our sablée brioche recipe is a good place to start.

The Sweet Side of Brioche

It’s impossible to work with brioche dough without veering into sweeter territory. One classic example is panettone, which is essentially brioche dough packed with sweet additions like chocolate and dried fruit. Panettone’s sugar content is nearly double that of standard brioche, yet its preparation follows many of the same principles—although it also requires building a multiday preferment.

Beyond panettone, we’ve explored other sweet loaf breads like Colomba di Pasqua and Portuguese Sweet Bread. Many of these festive breads begin with a variation of brioche or sandwich bread dough, made special by the addition of toppings or a sweet crust. Traditionally tied to holidays, these breads celebrate the spirit of the season and showcase how brioche can be transformed into the dessert of the bread world.

In short, this endlessly versatile dough can take on many forms, both savory and sweet, which makes it an essential addition to any baker’s repertoire.

Attributes of a Well-Made Brioche

A well-made brioche is pillowy and tender, luscious and rich, and deeply satisfying. It should display these key features.

1. The crust color should be a barley-malt brown, not bien cuit. Brushing the crust with an egg wash or a starch glaze will help protect the surface from drying out while also creating some shine. However, too much egg wash can stiffen with heat and create tear marks.
2. The shape should be uniform, with no crumple zones that indicate trapped pockets of air. If the sides and the base look like they’ve imploded, it’s likely because the brioche cooled off for too long in the pan, leaving the steam with nowhere to go but into the crust. You should also avoid seeing drips or pools of dried egg wash at the base—this suggests an over-application of the wash.
3. When biting into brioche, the crust should yield easily and be tender. It shouldn’t shatter, and you shouldn’t hear a crunch. A thick and tough crust is a sign that the brioche has been overbaked. The color should be a deep brown, and for challah, the crust should have a noticeable shine. There should be no rips on the crust, as these are typically caused by underproofing or baking at too low of a temperature.
4. Traditional brioche contains a lot of butter, but it shouldn’t taste overwhelmingly like pure butter. Thanks to the Maillard reaction, the butter combines with other ingredients to create an almost nutty flavor.
5. Brioche has a rich, heady aroma, dominated by the scent of butter. It should not smell overly eggy, but you should be able to detect how the egg enhances the overall aroma of the bread.
6. The crumb of a well-made brioche shouldn’t have large alveoli; instead, the holes should be small and evenly spaced. It should be pillowy, tender, and delicate, with a light-yellow hue.

Keys to a Successful Brioche

• Start baking brioche at a higher temperature, then lower it to prevent the crust from setting too quickly and hindering expansion.
• In a home oven, position your rack just below the center for optimal heat distribution. Use an oven thermometer to verify the correct temperature.
• Prepare your loaf pan with oil and parchment, or oil and flour, unless using a nonstick pan, where oil alone is sufficient.
• Use a modified starch glaze to prevent drying during proofing and baking. It doesn’t need precooking and won’t retrograde like other starches.
• After bulk fermentation, chill the dough for 2 hours or up to 24 hours, or freeze for up to a month. Chill dough on an oiled silicone mat or plastic tray to prevent sticking and discoloration.
• Use flour that develops a strong gluten network to counteract the fat in the dough. Many of our recipes use bread flour or high-gluten bread flour.
• Start with cold milk and eggs, but room-temperature butter, to prevent it from separating during mixing.
• Use an electric mixer; hand mixing could melt the butter.
• Add eggs in stages to avoid a sloppy dough and ensure proper mixing.
• Begin adding butter when the dough has reached low-to-medium gluten development to avoid delays or difficulty incorporating the fat.
• Add butter in portions to create an emulsion, similar to making mayonnaise or vinaigrette.

In Modernist Bread, you’ll find even more exciting recipes, such as panettone, babka, and a range of brioches made with 25% to 100% butter, along with creative purée-infused variations like purple sweet potato, mango, hazelnut, and more.

Our books offer a rich assortment of brioche that cater to various tastes and preferences. Modernist Bread at Home features 12 unique recipes and variations, including our master brioche, Hazelnut Butter Brioche, Corn Brioche, Oil Brioche, and Sablée Brioche. We even provide gluten-free and vegan gluten-free options for those with dietary needs.

When it comes to bread, the term “brick-like” might not sound appealing at first. Although dense breads get a bad reputation, they offer something that lighter loaves simply can’t: a rich, complex bite that directly showcases the grains inside.

These breads aren’t simply dense for the sake of it. Many brick-like breads incorporate rye flour, whole wheat flour, or whole grains. Rye flour, especially in higher percentages, tends to create dense, compact crumbs due to minimal gluten development. Whole wheat flour contains bran and germ, which can interfere with gluten formation by cutting through the protein network, causing the loaf to rise less compared to those made with refined flour. These dense breads may also include whole grains, seeds, nuts, or dried fruits, all bound together by a very wet, claylike dough. Because of this, the dough won’t stretch or rise into an airy loaf. Instead, it’s pressed into a pan, more like a pâté of grains than a traditional dough. Once baked, these loaves have a solid, satisfying texture that pairs perfectly with strong, savory flavors.

For thousands of years, most bread was much like these “brick-like” loaves. Ancient grains like einkorn and emmer didn’t have the gluten content to create the lofty, soft bread we now associate with refined wheat flour. Instead, bread was coarse, hearty, and packed with grains, seeds, and bran. While modern milling technology gave rise to the popularity of lighter white breads, these dense breads remained a staple in many parts of the world, especially across northern Europe.

Baking Tips and Techniques for Brick-Like Breads

Brick-like breads require a bit of extra attention in the oven. Their dense structure necessitates a higher core temperature (around 100°C / 212°F) and more time to bake thoroughly, evaporating excess moisture and ensuring the bread isn’t gummy. Shaping these breads is a hands-on task. Rather than traditional kneading and folding, you simply press the dough into the pan with your hands like molding clay, ensuring an even spread. A single score down the middle is all that is needed—no fancy designs here, as these loaves don’t spring up like their lighter cousins.

Although these breads may be dense, they’re not lacking in flavor or complexity. On the contrary, brick-like breads have long shelf lives and capture the full depth of the grains, seeds, and nuts inside them. They’re also perfect for open-faced sandwiches, considering their hearty texture supports all kinds of toppings.

Explore Iconic Brick-Like Breads

Pumpernickel

Originating from Westphalia, Germany, traditional pumpernickel is known for its deep, almost black color and rich, complex flavor. Unlike its modern, commercial counterparts that often rely on coffee, caramel, or molasses for color and sweetness, true pumpernickel gets its hue and flavor from dark rye flour and a long, slow bake. This bread was historically baked in the residual heat of an oven overnight, allowing the dough to develop a rich, earthy sweetness through the Maillard reaction.

Today, bakers still opt for tin pans to help the paste-like dough hold its shape, resulting in a bread that pairs perfectly with smoked meats, cheeses, or a simple spread of butter. Pumpernickel is best enjoyed after it has “cured” for 12–24 hours post-baking, allowing the flavors to meld and the texture to firm up. You can find more information about pumpernickel in Modernist Bread vol. 4:446.

Whole-Grain Loaves

Brick-like whole-grain loaves differ from the typical “whole wheat” bread you’re probably thinking of. These breads don’t just have whole-grain flour—they use the entire grains, which are then bound together with a paste-like dough. The result is a hearty, rustic texture and a deep, satisfying flavor.

With combinations of grains, seeds, and nuts, whole-grain loaves like our Hazelnut, Cocoa Nib, and Apricot Loaf are packed with nutrients and natural flavors. They require a bit more time for preparation, particularly for soaking the grains, but the reward is well worth it. Modernist Bread vol. 4:416 and Modernist Bread at Home, page 309, goes into more detail about whole-grain brick-like loaves.

Vollkornbrot

Literally translating to “whole-grain bread,” Vollkornbrot is a German staple made with a dense blend of whole grains, primarily rye. In our version, we pack in rye berries, cracked rye, and sunflower seeds, creating a loaf that’s both hearty and nourishing. This bread is baked at a high temperature to avoid gumminess and, like pumpernickel, benefits from resting post-bake to ensure clean slicing and cohesive texture. Vollkornbrot’s nutty flavor makes it a great base for savory toppings like smoked fish or hearty stews. If you’re looking to experiment, this versatile dough can incorporate inclusions like dried fruits or even cocoa for a unique twist on the classic. You can find more information in Modernist Bread vol. 4:428 and Modernist Bread at Home, page 315.

These breads may take a bit more time and attention, but the reward is a loaf that’s unlike anything you’ll find in the grocery store—full of flavor, texture, and tradition. Try serving dense, flavorful varieties like Vollkornbrot alongside cheeses, smoked fish, or hearty spreads at your upcoming holiday gatherings, and you might just find that dense isn’t such a bad thing after all!

Learn more in Modernist Bread at Home.

Enriched breads are a delightful evolution from the simple, humble beginnings of flour, water, salt, and yeast. By adding ingredients like fats, eggs, milk, and sugar, bakers create a wide array of breads with unique textures, flavors, and aromas. Unlike lean breads, which are known for their crackly crusts and open crumb structure, enriched breads are soft, tender, and often slightly sweet. The main characteristic of enriched breads is that they contain fat. That fat content gives enriched breads the added benefit of staying fresher longer than lean breads. Some enriched breads, especially loaves that bake in a pan, can also be a good place to start if you’re a beginner.

Key Ingredients in Enriched Breads

The magic of enriched breads lies in the addition of a few key ingredients, each contributing to the dough’s structure, flavor, and texture.

Fats play a crucial role in enriched breads. Whether you’re using butter, oil, lard, or even coconut oil, the type of fat you choose will directly affect the final loaf. Fats tenderize the crumb, making it soft and velvety, but too much can weaken the gluten structure, leading to a dense or collapsed loaf. It’s essential to balance the fat content to achieve the desired texture.

Eggs are another vital ingredient, acting as emulsifiers that bind fat and water together. Without eggs, the dough can separate during baking, leading to an unsatisfactory texture. Eggs also add richness, moisture, and color to the bread, making them indispensable in recipes like brioche and challah.

Sugar isn’t just for sweetness—it also plays a role in tenderizing the crumb and helping the crust brown during baking. However, too much sugar can slow down fermentation by drawing water away from the yeast, leading to longer proofing times. Finding the right balance is key to successful enriched breads.

Milk contributes both fat and moisture to the dough. Whole milk, with its mix of fat, sugar, and protein, adds complexity to the bread’s flavor and helps create a tender crumb. Some bakers opt for milk powder to control hydration more precisely, but it’s essential to adjust the water content accordingly.

Techniques for Working with Enriched Doughs

• When mixing and kneading, remember that fat inhibits gluten development, so enriched doughs might take longer to knead. Be patient and allow the dough to reach the right consistency, where it’s smooth and elastic but not too stiff.
• Proofing enriched doughs can take longer due to the presence of sugar and fat, which slow down yeast activity. Keep an eye on the dough, and don’t rush the process—extended proofing is often necessary to achieve the right rise and texture.
• When it comes to shaping and baking, the high-fat content in enriched doughs makes them easier to shape, as the fat coats the gluten strands and prevents sticking. However, be mindful of the baking temperature—fats are sensitive to heat, and overbaking can lead to a dry, crumbly loaf.

Common Challenges & Solutions

Baking enriched breads isn’t without its challenges.

• One common issue is collapsed loaves, often caused by too much fat or improper proofing. To prevent this, ensure your dough has the right balance of ingredients and don’t rush the proofing process.
• Achieving a consistent crumb structure can also be tricky. To get a tender, uniform crumb, mix your dough thoroughly and allow it to proof fully. Proper kneading and gentle handling are key to avoiding dense or uneven crumbs.
• Finally, don’t be afraid to experiment with flavor enhancements. Infused oils, alternative fats like cocoa butter, and inclusions like dried fruits or nuts can elevate your enriched breads to new heights.

Some of the most beloved breads in the world are enriched breads. Brioche is a classic example, with its buttery richness and soft crumb. It’s versatile enough for both sweet and savory dishes. Challah is another enriched bread that’s both beautiful and delicious. And of course, White Sandwich Bread is a staple in many households, perfect for everything from toast to sandwiches—find the recipe in Modernist Bread at Home.

Enriched breads offer a world of possibilities for bakers, from the traditional to the innovative. With their rich flavors, soft textures, and beautiful crusts, these breads are a joy to bake and eat.

Sourdough starter (or what we call “levain”) is a living, breathing organism that plays a crucial role in the art of bread making. However, just like any living thing, it takes some work and commitment to take care of—and doesn’t come without its challenges. Starters, for example, can easily become inactive. This can happen for several reasons, such as neglect (forgetting to feed it) or exposure to unfavorable conditions (like overheating). Occasionally, even with diligent care, your sourdough starter might seem lifeless or develop off-odors, which can be distressing for bakers who have invested time and effort in nurturing it.

Many bakers become quite attached to their sourdough starters. After all, it’s a creation they’ve nurtured from scratch. Yet it’s essential to remember that while sourdough starter is integral to baking, it isn’t irreplaceable or magical. If your starter isn’t performing well, don’t be afraid to start anew. Flour and water are inexpensive, and starting a new sourdough starter can often be simpler than trying to revive one that’s problematic. Moreover, even if you do manage to revive an old sourdough starter, it might have a different composition of yeasts and bacteria, leading to varying results in your bread.

That being said, here are some common issues that someone managing their own sourdough starter might encounter, along with some proposed solutions, to see whether you should throw in the towel.

Troubleshooting Common Sourdough Starter Problems

SOURDOUGH STARTER THAT WON’T START AT ALL

Getting a sourdough starter started is usually straightforward, but if you’re struggling, it might be best to discard the attempt and begin again. Ensure you’re feeding it on a regular schedule and maintaining a stable temperature. Warmer environments may require more frequent feedings to keep the sourdough starter active.

SOURDOUGH STARTER THAT BECOMES SLUGGISH

If your sourdough starter was once thriving but now seems to have lost its vigor, there are a couple of steps you can take to address this.

Start by checking for obvious issues like abnormal temperatures. Using insulated coolers or heating blankets on a low setting can help stabilize the environment during temperature fluctuations. In warmer conditions, use cold water during feedings or store the sourdough starter in a wine refrigerator.

Your sourdough starter might also need more frequent feedings in the summer. A min/max thermometer can help monitor temperature spikes, allowing you to make necessary adjustments. Once conditions are optimal, resume regular feeding and observe if the sourdough starter regains its activity.

Some bakers recommend using diastatic malt powder (0.5%), instant dry yeast (0.05%), Florapan (0.1%), or rye flour (10%–20%, reducing the bread flour by the same amount) to revive a sluggish sourdough starter. However, this process essentially creates a different environment and composition, akin to beginning a new sourdough starter.

SOURDOUGH STARTER THAT SEEMS LIFELESS OR INERT

If your sourdough starter appears completely lifeless despite addressing temperature and feeding issues, it might be beyond saving. You can still use it for baking by adding 0.5% instant dry yeast to your recipe, or freeze it for use as dough flavoring in other recipes. This approach allows you to salvage some of the unique flavors developed in the sourdough starter. We also have a recipe that uses inert sourdough, Second Chance Sourdough, available on our website.

OFF-ODORS

Occasionally, a sourdough starter can be overtaken by unwanted bacteria, resulting in unpleasant odors. In such cases, it’s best to discard the sourdough starter and start fresh. Trying to save a contaminated sourdough starter is often more trouble than it’s worth and may not yield desirable results.

Working with sourdough starter can be a rewarding experience, teaching patience and the importance of maintaining a nurturing environment. If you encounter issues, don’t be disheartened. Starting fresh can often be the best solution, providing a new opportunity to cultivate a robust and healthy sourdough starter.

Want to Learn More?

If you’re interested in diving deeper into the world of sourdough and fermentation, we offer a completely free email course at the Modernist Bread School. Throughout this course, we cover various topics, such as how to begin your own sourdough starter, tips for starter maintenance, how to store or freeze your starter, and more.

Further Reading

• Modernist Bread School
• Five Easy Tips for Freezing Your Sourdough Starter
• Second Chance Sourdough
• How to Start a Liquid Sourdough Starter
• Sourdough Science
• Chocolate and Cherry Sourdough
• The Cast-Iron Combination Cooker
• Optimizing Your Home Oven for Bread
• How to Rescue Overproofed Dough
• Is Fresh Yeast Best?

When it comes to making crusty loaves of bread, one of the biggest challenges home bakers have to contend with is home ovens. If you simply bake a loaf of bread in your oven, as water evaporates from the surface of the dough, it will begin to dry out and thicken. Even if all the water in the dough evaporates, it won’t result in the shatteringly crisp crust. To create that, you need steam.

When steam is injected into the cooking environment while bread is baking, it condenses on the dough, which instantaneously and significantly raises the dough’s surface temperature. When this happens, the starch on the surface gelatinizes into a thin skin called a pellicle. It is this thin skin that will dry into a super-crisp crust. This gelatinized coating also gives the final crust an attractive shine.

Many professional bakers have ovens that inject steam at the touch of a button. Baking the dough in a cast-iron combination cooker, one of our favorite tools, creates the same kind of steamy environment in a home oven, with excellent results. This versatile kitchen tool is a game changer for making hand-shaped, perfectly crusty loaves of bread at home—all at an incredibly wallet-friendly price of less than $40. This tool is perfect for almost any crisp-crust breads.

WHY THE CAST-IRON COMBINATION COOKER IS OUR TOP RECOMMENDATION

EXCEPTIONAL HEAT RETENTION: Composed of a skillet and a deep pot that lock together, the cast-iron combination cooker creates a miniature oven within your kitchen oven by absorbing and retaining heat. This makes it perfect for trapping steam and achieving that coveted crisp crust.

STEAMY BREAD-BAKING ENVIRONMENT: By preheating the lid of the cooker, you’ll create a steamy environment that mimics professional steam-injected ovens. This technique ensures your bread develops a crisp crust and an attractive shine, just like those from your favorite bakery.

AFFORDABILITY AND MULTIPURPOSE FUNCTIONALITY: We love how this economical option doubles as a skillet and a Dutch oven, making it a versatile addition to any kitchen. Whether you’re baking bread, braising meats, or searing steaks, the cast-iron combination cooker has got you covered.

PERFECT FOR HOME BAKERS: With a capacity ideal for loaves weighing 800 g to 1 kg, this cooker is tailor-made for home bakers. Its compact size fits seamlessly into most home ovens, ensuring consistent and reliable results.

How to Use the Cast-Iron Combination Cooker

There are several options for preheating and baking with the combination cooker. Which method you pick depends on your level of experience. Today, we’ll cover the beginner method, but keep in mind that there is a more advanced and better method that produces more steam.

In this method, the lid of the combination cooker is preheated.

1. The skillet will function as the bottom of the pot; the deeper pot is the “lid.” Put the lid in the oven as you preheat it as directed by your recipe.
2. When the oven is preheated, gently transfer the proofed dough to the base (skillet) of the cooker, which you have not preheated, and score if necessary.
3. With heavy-duty oven mitts, remove the hot cast-iron pot from the oven. Use caution: it’s heavy and very hot.
4. Set the hot lid over the skillet, and lock the two pots together. Put the entire combination cooker in the oven, and bake as directed. The radiant heat coming off the preheated pot will interact with the surface moisture on the dough to create steam.

Once you’ve done this several times, we recommend exploring the advanced method, which will generate more steam and get the best results. You can find this on page 131 of Modernist Bread at Home.

Which Recipes are best for the cast-iron combination cooker?

• Breads with thin, crispy crusts, especially in the shape of boules and bâtards
• Most of our lean bread recipes from Modernist Bread at Home (see pages 161–231), including French lean bread, sourdough, country-style bread, wheat breads, and more. However, we don’t recommend this technique for focaccia and ciabatta.

Our recipes in Modernist Bread at Home also include temperature adjustments when using the cast-iron combination cooker.